An Alarm Pheromone May Be Released by Defeated Competitors: A Possible Indicator of Danger

Authors:
Ana G. Gutiérrez-García^1, 2, Carlos M. Contreras^2, 3, *, Remedios Mendoza-López⁴, José Madrigal-Madariaga²

Abstract: Among many species, the establishment of hierarchical relations contains a highly ritualized behavioral context accompanied by the delivery of volatile agents, namely ketones and aldehydes, into environment. These substances act as signals contributing to defining and maintaining social hierarchies. Among mammals, some volatile compounds are released into the environment to report the presence of danger or conflict to conspecifics. For example, rats release an alarm pheromone, 2-heptanone, through their urine when subjected to physical stress. However, it is unknown whether some similarity occurs in human being, in spite that many possible alarm compounds have been identified in human fluids, including 2-heptanone. Contact sports may represent a situation of psychosocial interaction in which some hierarchy is established at the end of the contest. In such a case, the first match in martial arts competitions represents a natural model that is seemingly useful for studying alarm conditions in humans since there are two outcomes, winner and non-winner and after a stressful situation represented by contest, some kind of hierarchy is established. The present study measured urinary concentrations of 2-heptanone using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and applied anxiety measures (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI) in a sample of healthy student athletes. Compared with martial-arts winners, the characteristics of the non-winners included an increase in their urinary 2-heptanone content (F_2,18 = 5.541, p < 0.01), with no changes in anxiety scores (STAI-T: F_2,18 = 0.052, p = 0.949; and STAI-S: F_2,18 = 1.083, p = 0.360). The production of this ketone seems to be related with metabolic routes of fatty acids involving the participation of the so called stress hormones that may lead to an increase in the lipolysis of fatty acids and production of their metabolites, and among them, 2-heptanone. The increased release of 2-heptanone at the end of the match in non-winners may be interpreted as the release of an alarm signal that indicates imminent danger, similar to the occurrence in other species.

Keywords: Anxiety, 2-heptanone, Martial Arts, Winners, Tournament, Urine

Introduction

In animals that live in groups, confrontations are part of everyday life and occur within a highly ritualized behavioral context [1,2], leading to the establishment of hierarchical relations but producing a considerable degree of stress, namely in defeated individuals [3]. Some volatile odoriferous substances are released by rodents in corporal fluids and act as signals that contribute to the establishment and maintenance of social hierarchies [4,5]. The preputial gland of dominant male rodents releases two ketones [6], one of which, 2-heptanone, is able to produce anxiety in another receptor conspecific [7].

In primates, some chemical signals are also released in urine during confrontations between males that compete for dominance in the hierarchy or between females that compete for food resources [8]. However, few studies have investigated the role of chemical signals in humans. Contact sports represent a ritualized conflict situation between contenders who are subjected to considerable stress [9,10]. Martial arts competitions may serve as a natural model of social interaction, in which a highly ritualized conflict situation occurs. After physical contact, in most cases, only one winner is possible, thus establishing a type of hierarchy.

Unknown are whether odoriferous substances, identified as alarm pheromones [11], are released by competitors of contact sports and whether urinary excretion is related to the result of the contest. We hypothesized that during martial arts competitions, healthy humans release chemical danger or warning signals. We compared the delivery of urinary 2-heptanone between winners and non-winners in combat sports and associated the results with measurements of anxiety a few minutes prior to the first combat in the tournament, again, a few minutes after the competitors knew the results of the first combat, and 1 week after the tournament.

Read the full article here:http://bit.ly/1ePe2zA